It must be love, love, love

In the brain, romantic love shows similarities to going mildly insane or suffering from obsessive compulsive disorder. Studies show that when you first fall in love, serotonin levels plummet and the brain's reward centres are flooded with dopamine. This gives a high similar to an addictive drug, creating powerful links in our minds between pleasure and the object of our affection, and meaning we crave the hit of our beloved again and again.

The four stages of love

• Lust -  driven by the sex hormones testosterone and oestrogen.
• Attraction - In the attraction stage, a group of neuro-transmitters called 'monoamines' play an important role:
• Dopamine - the same chemical activated by cocaine and nicotine
• Norepinephrine (adrenaline) - Starts us sweating and gets the heart racing.
• Serotonin
• Attachment - 
• Oxytocin - released by the hypothalamus gland during child birth and also helps the breast express milk. It helps cement the strong bond between mother and child. It is also released by both sexes during intimate activities.
• Vasopressin

Happy valentines

Why do we enjoy music?

The sounds of music are not the same as other noises we hear on a daily basis. Your ears are one way to ensure your survival: they're a warning system, designed to analyse sounds for danger. But we can quickly recognise that a musical instrument as harmless. When you hear music, your ear drum moves in and out in a regular, repeated way, many times a second. We recognise that it's not dangerous, so we can focus on the harmonies and tunes – and enjoy them.

There are many sorts of music, and we enjoy them in lots of different ways. In films, music echoes the action. Several clichés have been built up – like strings and piano for romantic moments – but we enjoy them. In some cases, the music builds tension and we enjoy guessing what's going to happen next. If you look at "serious" music, like classical or jazz, anticipation and release are a major part of our enjoyment. The composer or improviser will set up expectations and then either reward or frustrate them. It's like telling a joke, where the punch line either fits the story, or is a surprise: in both cases, we get pleasure.

Drumming was probably the first sort of music; hitting things with a stick is fairly easy. Rhythm is good for dancing or entering hypnotic states, so that's an ancient response that we have to music. Our enjoyment of dance music is simple to understand: you can't really dance without it, and we enjoy dancing. Pop music involves short, ear-catching, easy- to-remember melodies. It's like eating sweets: instant gratification.

Musical systems are learned at an early age. Babies will sing several hundred different notes over a few minutes. But that song can't be repeated, so it's not much fun. The baby then listens to its parents singing nursery songs which only have a few notes, so the baby can learn to remember them and enjoy them.

Western music uses a lot of harmonies, where all the notes used at any one time agree with each other to some extent. Other musical systems are slightly different. There is no scientific reason at all why you'll prefer one type of musical to another. Everybody could enjoy more kinds of music if they gave them a chance – but sadly we tend not to do so. With food, if you try something properly 10 times you'll probably come to like it. It's the same with music, but people often close up their range of musical appreciation by the time they're about 25. But it's easy to increase your enjoyment of life by listening to a lot of different types of music.

Why do we sleep?

On average, we spend a third of our life sleeping. That's around 26 years if we live till 80. For something that we do for a large bulk of our life, we know very little about it. Some believe that sleep gives the body a chance to "recuperate" from the day's activity, however, the amount of energy saved by sleeping is only 50kCal per 8 hours... that's less than a packet of crisps. Sleep occurs in recurring cycles of 90 to 110 minutes and is divided into two categories: non-REM and REM sleep.

Non-REM Sleep

• Light sleep - half awake and half asleep. Muscle activity slows down and slight twitching may occur.
• True sleep - after around ten minutes of light sleep, we enter true sleep lasting around 20 minutes. Ventilation rate and heart rate begins to slow down.
• Deep sleep - brain begins to produce delta waves (high amplitude, low frequency), ventilation and heart rate at their lowest. If awakened during deep sleep, we do not adjust immediately and often feel groggy and disorientated.

REM Sleep

• Rapid eye movement (REM) period begins around 70 to 90 minutes after falling asleep. 
• We experience around three to five REM episodes every night. Although we are not conscious, our brain is active, allowing dreams to occur. Breathing rate and blood pressure rises.

One of the most recent and compelling explanations for why we sleep is based on findings that sleep is correlated to changes in the structure and organization of the brain. This phenomenon, known as brain plasticity, is not entirely understood, but its connection to sleep has several critical implications. It is becoming clear, for example, that sleep plays a critical role in brain development in infants and young children. A link between sleep and brain plasticity is becoming clear in adults as well. This is seen in the effect that sleep and sleep deprivation have on people's ability to learn and perform a variety of tasks.

Epidemiology

Epidemiology is the study of the distribution and determinants of health-related states or events, and the application of this study to the control of diseases and other health problems. 


John Snow was a British physician and is considered to be the father of modern epidemiology. He is famous for his investigations into the causes of the 19th century cholera epidemic in Soho. He noticed that significantly higher deaths were recorded in households that frequently used the Broad Street pump for water. He used a spot map to illustrate how the cases of cholera were clustered around the pump. Snow then attempted to clean the water using chlorine, and removed the handle on the pump, so no-one could use it. Later, it was discovered that the well had been dug only three feet from an old cesspit (a pit covered in cistern, used to dispose of urine and feces), which was leaking fecal bacteria.

A quick break from medicine... The infinite monkey theorem

"A monkey hitting keys at random on a typewriter for an infinite amount of time will almost surely type a given text, such as the complete works of William Shakespeare".

First we need to get a few things straight:

• It doesn't have to be a monkey - it is just a metaphor for an abstract device that produces random sequence of letters and symbols.
• 'Almost surely' has a specific mathematical meaning.
• It doesn't matter if there's an infinite number of monkeys with typewriters, one monkey for an infinite amount of time, or an infinite number of monkeys for an infinite amount of time.

Almost surely?

The difference between an event being 'almost sure' and 'sure' is the same as the subtle difference between something happening with probability 1 and happening always. If an event is sure, then it will always happen. No other event can possibly occur even if the other event’s probability is 1. If an event is almost sure, then other events are theoretically possible in a given sample space (a sample space is a set of the possible outcomes), however as the size of the sample space increases, the probability of any other event nears zero.

The point is, that given an infinite amount of time, every single combination of letters, words, symbols and numbers ever, will be written. One monkey may type out the complete works of Shakespeare but misspell Romeo as Rameo, one monkey may be one full stop away from completion, and stop typing.

Anderson's model

Programmer Jesse Anderson wanted to give Amazon’s Web Services — cloud-based storage, data processing, virtual private servers, etc. — a try so he decided to test out the Infinite Monkey Theorem. The monkeys were replaced with software that outputs random letters and their writing is being combined to recreate the complete works of Shakespeare. 3,696,348 characters in total.

Using Anderson’s method each individual has to type just nine characters that match the source text before the program adds that string to the collected pool of Shakespeare text. This should make the project go much more quickly than if a single monkey had to accidentally recreate a work that is tens of thousands of characters long, which is how the theory generally goes.

This is an image of how much of the complete works of Shakespeare the virtual monkeys have covered so far (green).

Telomeres

Our genes are located on twisted double stranded molecules of DNA called chromosomes. On the ends of the chromosomes, there are stretches of DNA called telomeres. Telomeres protect our genetic data, makes it possible for cells to divide and many believe holds the secrets to ageing and cancer.

Without telomeres, the main part of the chromosome containing genes essential for life would get shorter after each cell division. So telomeres allow cells to divide without losing genes. Cell division is essential for growth of new skin, blood, bone and other cells. Also without telomeres, chromosome ends could fuse together and degrade the cell's genetic blueprint, making the cell malfunction, become cancerous or die. Because broken DNA is dangerous, a cell has the ability to sense and repair chromosome damage. Finally, without telomeres, the ends of chromosomes would look like broken DNA, and the cell would try to fix something that wasn't broken. That also would make them stop dividing and eventually die. 


Before a cell can divide, the chromosomes within it are duplicated so that each of the two new cells contains identical genetic material. A chromosome's two strands of DNA must unwind and separate. An enzyme (DNA polymerase) then starts to make two new strands of DNA to match each of the two unwound strands. It does this with the help of short pieces of RNA. When each new matching strand is completed, it is a bit shorter than the original strand because of the room needed at the end by this small piece of RNA. It is like someone who paints himself into a corner and cannot paint the corner.

A printed jaw transplant for a woman with osteomyelitis

In June 2011, an 83-year old Belgian woman was given the first ever replacement surgery for an entire lower jaw. The replacement jaw, created by a 3D printer, has proven to be as functional as her own used to be.

Osteomyelitis
The woman had lost her entire lower jaw due to this bone infection known as osteomyelitis, caused by bacteria or fungi. There are two main types of osteomyelitis: acute, where the bone infection develops within two weeks of an initial infection, injury or underlying disease, and chronic, where the bone infection has produced irreversible changes in the bone structure. Acute osteomyelitis can usually be treated by antibiotics.

• Contiguous osteomyelitis (acute) is caused by infections spreading directly into the bone as a result of an injury, such as a fractured bone.
• Haematogenous osteomyelitis (acute) is where infection spreads into the bone through the bloodstream.

Chronic osteomyelitis can start as acute osteomyelitis if not treated properly, causing the bacteria/fungi to produce permanent, destructive changes to the bone. It may also develop as a complication of pre-existing infections such as TB or syphilis.

How was the replacement jaw made?

Researchers at 'Biomed', the biomedical research department of the University of Hasselt, Belgium, worked with a 3D printing firm called Layerwise, who specialise in ultrastrong titanium. An MRI scan was taken of the patient's ailing jawbone to get the correct shape, which was then fed into a laser sintering 3D printer which fused tiny titanium particles layer by layer until the shape of her jawbone was recreated. The replacement jaw was then coated with biocompatible ceramic layer, and had dimples and cavities to promote muscle attachment, and sleeves to allow mandibular nerves to pass through.

The four hour surgery was successful, and allowed the woman to speak, chew and breathe normally again.

Harlequin-type ichthyosis

Also known as 'Harlequin baby' and 'Harlequin congenita', Harlequin-type ichthyosis is a skin disease characterised by a thickening of the keratin layer in fetal human skin. The sufferer's skin contains large, red, diamond shaped scales and the eyes, ears and genitals may be abnormally contracted. The cracked skin limit's the movement greatly, and allows bacteria and other contaminants to easily penetrate, resulting in serious risk of fatal infection. Restricted movement of the chest can lead to breathing difficulties and respiratory failure. Furthermore, it is more difficult for the affected infant to control water loss and regulate body temperatures.


It is caused by mutations in the ABCA12 gene, which provides instructions for making a protein essential for the normal development of skin cells. The protein plays a major role in the transport of lipids in the epidermis layer of the skin. Some mutations in the ABCA12 gene prevent the cell from making any ABCA12 protein. Other mutations lead to the production of an abnormally small version of the protein that cannot transport lipids properly. A loss of functional ABCA12 protein disrupts the normal development of the epidermis, resulting in the hard, thick scales characteristic of harlequin ichthyosis.


Symptoms

• Severe cranial and facial deformities
• Ears and nose may be absent or poorly developed
• Ectropion  - everted or outward eyelids
• Dryness of skin
• Thickening of skin
• Large, red scales
• Deformed limbs
• Polydactyly – more than the usual number of toes or fingers

Treatment

• Isotretinoin
• Symptomatic treatment - aimed at reducing the signs and symptoms for the comfort and well-being of the patient
• Treat dryness
• Treat infections

Sherry's nightmare... Trichotillomania

Trichotillomania (trich for short) is a type of impulsive control disorder causing a repeated urge to pull or twist the hair until it breaks off. This may be hair on any parts of the body such as head, eyelashes, eyebrows and arms, and leads to thinning and bald patches. Some may even consume their own hair.  It is estimated that trich can start at around 11~13 years old, affecting around 4 people in 100, and women are four times more likely to be affected than men.

Symptoms

• Uneven appearance to the hair
• Bald patches or all around loss of hair
• Bowel blockage (if hair is consumed)
• Constant tugging, pulling, twisting of hair
• Other self injury behaviours
• Sense of relief, pleasure or gratification after hair pulling

Treatment

Some doctors/ experts disagree to the use of medication to treat trich, however, naltrexone and some serotonin reputake inhibitors have been shown effective in reducing some symptoms.

Catch it, Bin it, Kill it! Swine Flu

What is swine flu?
Swine flu is a respiratory disease caused by a strain of type A influence virus known as H1N1, which left 7447 infected and caused 3 deaths in the UK in 2009. It contains genetic materials that is typically found in strains of the virus that affect humans, birds and swine. It spreads by droplets from person to person by coughing and sneezing, and has similar symptoms to those produced by standard seasonal flu:

• Fever
• Cough
• Sore throat
• Body aches
• Chills

Humans usually recover from standard flu in around a week. The H1N1 virus contain traces of the human flu, and so inherits the ability to transmit from human to human, while also contains traces from bird and swine flu and so is not recognised by our immune systems, and so antibodies cannot be produces.

Treatment

Two prescription antiviral drugs: tamiflu and relenza were proven effective in reducing the duration and severity of the infection

Hiccups

Hiccups are caused by the sudden, involuntary contraction of the diaphragm (a thin membrane of muscle separating the chest cavity from the abdomen), resulting in the hiccup sound being produced at the top of the trachea. They are a reflex action and so you do not have any control over them. Some researchers in France believe suggest that it may be linked to how we have evolved from organisms that lived in the sea. They say hiccups may be a throwback to a time when our ancestors had gills to help them breathe.

Here are some remedies..

• Drink about a half a teaspoon of pickle juice every 7-10 seconds until your hiccups stop.
• Drink a normal-sized gulp of water, but don't swallow! Leave the water in your mouth. Pull down both your earlobes. Tilt your head back. Swallow.
• Drink a teaspoon of vinegar and this should cure hiccups unless you drink the last bit of vinegar in the bottle.
• Just say purple dinosaur
• Drink salt water, while doing a handstand, and pinching your nose.
• A sudden fright

What's in a cigarette?

In 1994, Brown and Williamson, one of the largest tobacco manufacturers in the USA, published a list of 599 additives used to make their cigarettes. The full list can be found here.

Ammonia is formed during distillation and burning, and helps the body to absorb more nicotine, boosting its effect. It is usually found in cleaning products and fertilizers, and toxic in large doses.

Nicotine present in the tobacco, produces a reaction with nicotonic receptors and produces effects on muscles and the brain, providing mild euphoria. Highly addictive.

Honey/ chocolate/vanilla for flavour.

Arsenic gives you bad breath, and is a deadly poison in large doses and prolonged exposure. It is also a carcinogen.

Benzene is absorbed by the lungs and transported to various organs such as the liver, where they are metabolized and converted into highly reactive and toxic compounds. Also a carcinogen.

Cadmium a toxic metal that is used in batteries.

Formation and growth of tumorous cells

1. Solid tumors are formed from cells with altered genetic material, causing it to respond differently to the host's growth regulators and leads to uncontrolled growth. 
2. Early tumor cells can obtain enough nutrients from existing vasculture and so the proliferation rate is regular, producing growing spheroid of cells expanding at high speed. 
3. As the tumor grows, the amount of nutrients that is able to diffuse through to the center decreases, and so the central cells become so deficient that division ceases, forming a region of dead cells known as a necrotic core. As the spheroid continues to develop, the outer most layer of cells become roughly constant in size leading to a phase of linear growth. 
4. In order to grow beyond this limit, tumors require blood supply. This is achieved by the secretion of tumor angiogenesis factor (TAF), which diffuses across the tissue between the tumor and blood vessel, activating angiogenesis. 
5. Metastasis refers to spread of the cancer, and occurs when cancer cells break away from the primary tumour and enter the bloodstream or the lymphatic system where they are carried to other parts of the body. When a new tumour forms at a site away from the primary site, it is known as a "metastatic tumour".

The Cell Cycle Clock and Cancer

The cell cycle clock represents a normal cell life in four main stages.

Stage 1 Gap 1 (G1): the cell increases in size, and prepares to copy the DNA contained in its nucleus.

Stage 2 Synthesis (S): the chromosomes of the cell are replicated

Stage 3 Gap 2 (G2): the cell prepares for mitosis

Stage 4 Mitosis (M): the mother cell divides into two daughter cells, each containing a complete set of chromosomes. The two daughter cells immediately enter the G1 stage to continue the cycle.

Restriction point (R): a molecular switch which determines whether the cell continues the cell cycle, enters the G0 state (senescence) or undergoes apoptosis - programmed cell death. There are two classes of genes that play a major role in triggering cancer. Cells in the human body can only survive when their 'area code' where the cell is compatible with the code of the surrounding cells and the extra-cellular matrix. Therefore, normal cells die by apoptosis if they try to leave their cell structure. This is known as anchorage dependence. Proteins produced by oncogenes in cancer cells trick the nucleus by making it seem that the cell is attached to the correct region, while it is actually not. This allows cancer calls to migrate freely throughout the human body via the blood circulation system

Speed

Speed is the street name for a range of drugs called amphetamines – including amphetamine sulphate, dexedrine and dexamphetamine. Like cocaine, amphetamines are stimulants that people take to keep them awake and alert.

Amphetamines have been used in wars to help keep soldiers alert and they were once the main ingredient in diet pills, because they stop people feeling hungry. Some amphetamines are used in medicine, for example, Ritalin is used to treat Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder.

Effects

• Speed makes people feel wide awake, excited and chatty.

• People take it because it gives them the energy to do things for hours without getting tired, things like dancing, talking, and going out.

• It can though make people overactive, agitated or even acutely psychotic.

• The high is generally followed by a long slow comedown, making you feel really irritable and depressed.

• Speed puts a strain on your heart – some users have died from overdoses.

It is a class B drug. You may be charged with possession if you have a small amount of amphetamine on you. However, the more you have the less likely it is to be for your own use and you may be charged with possession with intent to supply. The penalty for possession with intent to supply is jail and/or a large fine.

Methamphetamine

Also known as meth, crystal and ice, methamphetamine stimulates the brain and nervous system in a similar way to cocaine and speed, but with a stronger and longer lasting effect. It can be made relatively easily from a simple recipe and a meth-lab, taking around 6 to 8 hours using ingredients such as ether, benzene, methanol and hydrochloric acid.

Effects

• Feeling very up, excited, alert and awake
• Agitation, paranoia, confusion and aggressiveness
• Decrease in appetite

Methamphetamine use has a high association with depression and suicide, as well as serious heart disease, amphetamine psychosis. It is extremely addictive, neurotoxic and is associated with an increased risk of Parkinson's disease.

Ecstasy

The synthetic chemical 3,4-methylenedioxy-n-methylamphetamine (also known as XTC, E, beans and rolls) is seen as the original 'designer drug' due to its close link to dance music culture in the late 80s. Clubbers took this energy-boosting drug to dance for hours thanks to its short 'kick in' time and long lasting effects of up to 3 to 6 hours.

Effects

• Energy buzz
• Feeling very alert and alive
• Heightened senses
• Increased sociability
• Increased talkativeness

Risks

• Death by overdose - heart stroke
• Water poisoning - drinking too much water to provoke hyponaetraemia
• Toxic reactions
• Depression

Lysergic acid diethylamide

Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) is a powerful hallucinogenic commonly known as acid. LSD stimulates centers of the sympathetic nervous system in the midbrain, which leads to pupillary dilation, increase in body temperature, and rise in the blood-sugar level. LSD also has a serotonin-blocking effect.

Although most LSD trips include both pleasant and unpleasant aspects, the drug's effects are unpredictable and may vary with the amount ingested and the user's personality, mood, expectations, and surroundings.

Users of LSD may experience some physiological effects, such as:
Increased blood pressure and heart rate
Dizziness
Loss of appetite
Dry mouth
Sweating
Nausea
Numbness
Tremors
However, the drug's major effects are emotional and sensory. The user's emotions may shift rapidly through a range from fear to euphoria, with transitions so rapid that the user may seem to experience several emotions simultaneously.

Cannabis

Marijuana, spliff, weed, pot... the most widely-used illegal drug in Britain. It is naturally occurring from the cannabis plant containing tetrahydrocannabinol which makes you feel very chilled out, happy and relaxed. It also makes you hallucinate and alter your senses.


There's increasing evidence that cannabis use is linked to a number of health risks. It damages the ability to concentrate, decreases motivation and more than occasional use in teenagers can affect psychological development. Users can become anxious, suspicious and even paranoid. Heavy use increases the risk of serious psychiatric illness.


Cannabis is a class B drug and so penalties for possession of it can be severe.

Cocaine

Powder cocaine, known as coke and crack, are powerful stimulants that give a powerful high.

Effects

• Boosts confidence, concentration and makes you feel more awake. This may cause you to take very careless risks.
• Increases body temperature and heart rate, reduces your appetite.
• When the effects wear off, the user experiences a 'comedown' where the feel depressed.

90% of the world's cocaine are made in 'coke kitchen' deep in the south american jungle. They are made from coca leaves, which are crushed and then processed with petrol. It affects the body by increasing dopamine secretion, a natural 'reward' chemical, flooding the brain's receptors making the system hyperactive.

Psilocybin Mushrooms

More commonly known as magic mushrooms, shrooms, blue meanies, boomers, mushies, liberty caps and cubes, today's post is about the psilocybin/ psilocin containing fungi that have given people mild trips for many years.

Effects

• Colours, sounds and objects appear distorted
• Sense of time and movement speed up/ slows down
• User feels disoriented, tired or sick

Consuming magic mushrooms causes twitching, sickness, drowsiness, low blood pressure, dizziness, salivation and could lead to a coma. Also, the mushroom may have been mistaken for a poisonous look-alike.

Types

The two main types of magic mushrooms in the UK are Psilocybe cubensis (left) and Psilocybe semilanceata (right).

The maximum penalty for possession is 7 years in prison and life for supply. You can get an unlimited fine for both. Mushrooms or any fungus containing psilocin or an ester of psilocin have been brought under the Misuse of Drugs Act and are now class A. This came into force July 18 2005. Mushrooms are not dealt with in the black market to any great extent at the moment. Indications show that quantities of around 30 mushrooms, if and when they are sold, sell for around £5 per bag. These prices are merely indicative and do not represent a recognised street price.

Epigenetics - was Lamarck right all along?

Epigenetics is the study of heritable changes in gene expression or cellular phenotype caused by mechanisms other than changes in the underlying DNA sequence. It is an idea that genes have a 'memory' and that the lives of your grandparents can directly affect you decades later. It proposes a control system of 'switches' that turn genes on or off and suggests that an individual's experience during their lifetime such as nutrition and stress can control these switches, causing heritable effects in humans.

After the tragic events of September 11th 2001, Rachel Yehuda, a psychologist at the Mount Sinai School of Medicine in New York, studied the effects of stress on a group of women who were inside or near the World Trade Center and were pregnant at the time. Produced in conjunction with Jonathan Seckl, an Edinburgh doctor, her results suggest that stress effects can pass down generations. Meanwhile research at Washington State University points to toxic effects – like exposure to fungicides or pesticides – causing biological changes in rats that persist for at least four generations.

Jean-Baptiste Lamarck was a French naturalist, soldier and biologist who is most well known for Lamarckian evolution, a 200-year old theory that has been largely dismissed. His theory suggested that acquired characteristics can be passed onto offspring e.g. as a giraffe reached for taller branches, their neck stretched, which made their offspring have a slightly longer necks. It is true giraffe's necks did not evolve this way, however, according to epigenetics, acquired information can be passed to the next generation. Not by the information encoded in the DNA, but instead, the molecules that are involved in decoding the DNA message. For example, chicken given an unpredictable food supply produced offspring that were better capable of such unpredictability.

Vitamin D - may stop sight loss

According to The Independent, boosting vitamin D intake could help to prevent age-related diseases, in particular loss of vision and blindness. This widely reported news story centres on research in which “middle-aged” mice were treated for six weeks with vitamin D. The researchers examined the mice’s vision and looked for signs of inflammation in their eyes and whether proteins associated with normal ageing had built up. The accumulation of these proteins and inflammation can increase the risk of people developing age-related macular degeneration (AMD), a major cause of blindness in people aged over 50 in countries such as the UK. The researchers found that there was less inflammation and build-up of the protein amyloid beta in the retinas of mice treated with vitamin D.

However, the researchers did not specifically look at a mouse model of AMD and this study has limited relevance to humans. Therefore, it’s not possible to say, based on the study’s results, whether vitamin D has any effect on age-related vision loss or AMD in humans.

Statins to cure cancer?

Statins are drugs which lower the level of ‘bad cholesterol’in your body. Cholesterol is essential for your body to work well, but too much ‘bad cholesterol’ (low-density lipoprotein or LDL) is unhealthy as they help to transport multiple different fat molecules, within the water around cells and within the bloodstream.

High levels of ‘bad cholesterol’ in your blood can lead to fatty deposits building up in your arteries, leading to an atheroma. This can increase your risk of developing cardiovascular disease which includes conditions such ascoronary heart disease (angina and heart attack) and stroke.

An article by the Daily Express has suggested that a daily dose of statins have shown to block the growth and spread of tumors based on a laboratory research into the role of a genetic mutation in the development of breast cancer using cell cultures at Columbia University. During the experiment, cells generated from breast cancer tumors carrying the mutation were grown. The researchers then interfered with the effects of the genetic mutation, to find that around half the cells reverted back to normal, non-cancerous structures. They explored this phenomenon further by identifying how this gene affects the cells, and found that simvastatin, one type of statin, reduced cancer cell growth and increased cancer cell death.

Drug resistant TB in India

Recently, there were 12 confirmed cases of a strain of tuberculosis that is resistant to all existing TB drugs, in Mumbai, India. Reported by Zarir Udwadia of the Hinduja National Hospital and Medical Research Centre in Mumbai.

What is TB?
TB is short for tuberculosis, a bacterial infection spread by inhalation of tiny droplets of saliva from the coughs/ sneezes of an infected individual causes by mycobacterium tuberculosis and mycobacterium bovis. TB mainly affects the lungs (pulmonary tuberculosis), but can spread to many parts of the body including bones and nervous system, which is fatal. Symptoms include persistent coughing, weight loss due to loss of appetite and night sweats.

When your immune system is not strong enough to kill the bacteria, it builds a defensive barrier around the infection and divides in plentiful supply of oxygen. This is known as the primary infection where very little symptoms are seen. Secondary infection occurs when the TB bacteria re-emerges and destroys lung tissues.

The emergence of the disease in such a densely populated city is a major concern as it will be transmitted easily and so the worry is that TB may become incurable again, and patients will have to reply on their immune system rather than medical intervention.

Disrupted body clock may prime you for schizophrenia (New Scientist)

This is a summary of an article published today on 'New Scientist' that relates to my previous post on schizophrenia. It suggests that schizophrenia may be a profound form of jetlag in which the brain's central clock runs out of kilter with peripheral clocks around the rest of the body. A genetic mutation was found that triggers schizophrenia-like symptoms in mice, which also disrupted their circadian rhythm (body clock). This was tested by keeping the affected mice under a schedule of 12 hours of light, followed by 12 hours of darkness.

The rhythm is maintained by a patch of brain tissue called the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), which gathers information about light from the eye, and relays it to the rest of the body by proteins, allowing bodily functions to be co-ordinated. The findings from the mice experiment suggests that the development of therapeutic agents to normalise SCN signalling in schizophrenic patients may improve their quality of life and longetivity.

Christopher - Schizophrenia

Schizophrenia, also colloquially called split personality disorder, is a chronic, severe, debilitating mental illness that affects about 1% of the population. With the sudden onset of severe psychotic symptoms (out of touch with reality or unable to separate real from unreal experiences), the individual is said to be experiencing acute schizophrenia. 

• Paranoid schizophrenia: The individual is preoccupied with one or more delusions or many auditory hallucinations but does not have symptoms of disorganized schizophrenia. 
• Disorganized schizophrenia: Prominent symptoms are disorganized speech and behavior, as well as flat or inappropriate affect. The person does not have enough symptoms to be characterized as suffering from catatonic schizophrenia. 
• Catatonic schizophrenia: The person with this type of schizophrenia primarily has at least two of the following symptoms: difficulty moving, resistance to moving, excessive movement, abnormal movements, and/or repeating what others say or do. 
• Undifferentiated schizophrenia: This is characterized by episodes of two or more of the following symptoms: delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech or behavior, catatonic behavior or negative symptoms, but the individual does not qualify for a diagnosis of paranoid, disorganized, or catatonic type of schizophrenia. 
• Residual schizophrenia: While the full-blown characteristic positive symptoms of schizophrenia (those that involve an excess of normal behavior, such as delusions, paranoia, or heightened sensitivity) are absent, the sufferer has a less severe form of the disorder or has only negative symptoms (symptoms characterized by a decrease in function, such as withdrawal, disinterest, and not speaking).

Causes

The causes aren't known for sure but is likely that a combination of several different factors may have an effect.

• Genetic links - one in ten people with schizophrenia has a parent with the condition.
• Damage to the brain during pregnancy or birth.
• Use of recreational drugs, including ecstasy, LSD, amphetamines (speed), cannabis and crack.
• Stress.

Symptoms

Symptoms that represent a change in behaviour, or thoughts are called ‘positive’ symptoms. These include:

• Delusions - believing something completely even though others find your ideas strange and can't work out how you've come to believe them.
• Difficulty thinking – finding it hard to concentrate, drifting from one idea to another. Other people may find it hard to understand you.
• Feeling controlled – feeling as though your thoughts are vanishing, that they‘re not your own, or that your body is being taken over and controlled by someone else.
• Hallucinations - hearing, smelling, feeling or seeing something that isn’t there. Hearing voices is the most common problem. The voices can seem utterly real. Although they may be pleasant, they are more often rude, critical, abusive or annoying.

Loss of normal thoughts, feelings or actions are known as ‘negative’ symptoms. They include:

• Loss of interest, energy and emotions. You don't bother to get up or go out of the house. You don't get round to routine jobs like washing, tidying, or looking after your clothes. You feel uncomfortable with other people.
• Some people hear voices without negative symptoms. Others have delusions but few other problems. If someone has only muddled thinking and negative symptoms, the problem may not be recognised for years.

Owl - Narcissistic personality disorder

Narcissistic personality disorder is a mental disorder in which people have an inflated sense of their own importance and a deep need for admiration. Those with narcissistic personality disorder believe that they're superior to others and have little regard for other people's feelings. But behind this mask of ultra-confidence lies a fragile self-esteem, vulnerable to the slightest criticism.


Symptoms

In order for a person to be diagnosed with narcissistic personality disorder (NPD) they must meet five or more of the following symptoms:

• Has a grandiose sense of self-importance (e.g., exaggerates achievements and talents, expects to be recognized as superior without commensurate achievements)
• Is preoccupied with fantasies of unlimited success, power, brilliance, beauty, or ideal love
• Believes that he or she is "special" and unique and can only be understood by, or should associate with, other special or high-status people (or institutions)
• Requires excessive admiration
• Has a very strong sense of entitlement, e.g., unreasonable expectations of especially favorable treatment or automatic compliance with his or her expectations
• Is exploitative of others, e.g., takes advantage of others to achieve his or her own ends
• Lacks empathy, e.g., is unwilling to recognize or identify with the feelings and needs of others
• Is often envious of others or believes that others are envious of him or her
• Regularly shows arrogant, haughty behaviors or attitudes

Narcissistic personality disorder is typically diagnosed by a trained mental health professional, such as a psychologist or psychiatrist. There are no laboratory, blood or genetic tests that are used to diagnose personality disorder. Many people with narcissistic personality disorder don't seek out treatment. People with personality disorders, in general, do not often seek out treatment until the disorder starts to significantly interfere or otherwise impact a person's life. This most often happens when a person's coping resources are stretched too thin to deal with stress or other life events.

Treatment of narcissistic personality disorder typically involves long-term psychotherapy with a therapist that has experience in treating this kind of personality disorder. Medications may also be prescribed to help with specific troubling and debilitating symptoms.

Rabbit - OCD

Obsessive-compulsive disorder is an anxiety disorder characterized by intrusive thoughts that produce uneasiness, apprehension, fear, or worry, by repetitive behaviors aimed at reducing the associated anxiety, or by a combination of such obsessions and compulsions.... hence the name. It is estimated that up to 3% of adults and 5% of children and teenagers have OCD.

Symptoms
Most people with OCD generally fall into a set pattern or cycle of thought and behaviour. This pattern has four main steps:

Obsession – your mind is overwhelmed by a constant obsessive fear or concern, such as the fear that your house will be burgled.

Anxiety – this obsession provokes a feeling of intense anxiety and distress.

Compulsion – you then adopt a pattern of compulsive behavior to reduce your anxiety and distress, such as checking that all your windows and doors are locked at least three times before leaving your house.

Temporary relief – the compulsive behavior brings temporary relief from anxiety, but the obsession and anxiety soon return, causing the pattern or cycle to begin again.

Treatment

Cognitive behavioral therapy - involving graded exposure and response prevention has repeatedly proved to be an effective treatment for OCD.

Medication - You may be prescribed medication if CBT fails to treat mild OCD or if you have moderate or severe OCD. The different types of medication that you may be prescribed are discussed below.

Eeyore - Major depressive disorder

Eeyore is a favourite amongst most admirers of Winnie the Pooh characters and he is an unbelievably lovable donkey who is dismally gloomy for almost eternity. Depression may be described as feeling sad, blue, unhappy, miserable, or down in the dumps. Most of us feel this way at one time or another for short periods. True clinical depression is a mood disorder in which feelings of sadness, loss, anger, or frustration interfere with everyday life for weeks or longer.


Researchers believe it is caused by chemical changes in the brain due to a problem with the genes, or triggered by stressful events. Symptoms include...

• Agitation, restlessness, and irritability
• Dramatic change in appetite, often with weight gain or loss
• Very difficult to concentrate
• Fatigue and lack of energy
• Feelings of hopelessness and helplessness
• Feelings of worthlessness, self-hate, and guilt
• Becoming withdrawn or isolated
• Loss of interest or pleasure in activities that were once enjoyed
• Thoughts of death or suicide
• Trouble sleeping or excessive sleeping

Treatments

• Wait and see
• Exercise
• Self help groups
• Talking therapy
• Antidepressants
• Mental health teams

Tigger - ADHD

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, the most common behavioral disorder in the UK, affecting around 3~9% of young people, and 2% of adults.

Symptoms - Children/Teens

Inattentiveness- The main symptoms of inattentiveness are:

• a very short attention span
• being very easily distracted
• making careless mistakes, for example in schoolwork 
• appearing forgetful or losing things 
• being unable to stick at tasks that are tedious or time consuming
• being unable to listen to or carry out instructions
• being unable to concentrate
• constantly changing activity or task
• having difficulty organising tasks

Hyperactivity - The main symptoms of hyperactivity are:

• being unable to sit still, especially in calm or quiet surroundings
• constantly fidgeting
• being unable to settle to tasks
• excessive physical movement
• excessive talking

Impulsiveness - The main symptoms of impulsiveness are:

• being unable to wait for a turn
• acting without thinking
• interrupting conversations
• breaking any set rules
• little or no sense of danger

Symptoms - Adults

• carelessness and lack of attention to detail
• continually starting new tasks before finishing old ones
• poor organisational skills
• inability to focus or prioritise
• continually losing or misplacing things
• forgetfulness
• restlessness and edginess
• difficulty keeping quiet and speaking out of turn
• blurting responses, and poor social timing when talking to others
• often interrupting others
• mood swings
• irritability and a quick temper
• inability to deal with stress
• extreme impatience
• taking risks in activities, often with little or no regard for personal safety or the safety of others

As with ADHD in children and teenagers, ADHD in adults can appear alongside many related problems or conditions. One of the most common conditions is depression. Other conditions that adults may have alongside ADHD include:

• personality disorders
• bipolar disorder, a condition that affects your moods, which can swing from one extreme to another
• obsessive-compulsive disorder, a condition that causes obsessive thoughts and compulsive behaviour, such as cleaning constantly 

Treatment

• Methylphenidate - stimulates a part of the brain that changes mental and behavioral reactions
• Dexamfetamine - psycho/CNS stimulant
• Atomoxetine - selective nor-adrenaline uptake inhibitor
• Psychotherapy
• Behaviour therapy
• Social skills training
• Cognitive behavioral therapy